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chemistry revision

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Sofia Banu Last updated 15/11/2025

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study material for chemistry students about p-block elements, d-block elements and oxidation-reduction concepts.

quick revision sheet for the above mentioned topics.

 

 

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Sofia Banu

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Lecture - chemistry revision

Classification of Elements Need: Organize elements by properties, predict unknowns. Modern Periodic Law: Properties repeat with increasing atomic number. Periodicity: Atomic size, IE, EN, MP/BP show regular trends. Blocks: s (1–2), p (13–18), d (3–12), f (lanthanides & actinides). P-Block Elements III A – Boron Family Valence: ns² np¹, Oxidation: +3 Properties: Metalloid → B; metals → Al, Ga, In MP/BP: moderate, Bonding: covalent/metallic Extraction: Hall-Héroult → Al from Al₂O₃ Boric acid: antiseptic, flame retardant Potash alum: water purification, dye fixing IV A – Carbon Family Valence: ns² np², Oxidation: +4/+2 Allotropes: Carbon → Diamond, Graphite, Amorphous Uses: Diamond → cutting; Graphite → lubricant, electrodes Silicon: amorphous & crystalline → semiconductor, glass V A – Nitrogen Family Valence: ns² np³, Oxidation: –3, +3, +5 NH₃: prepared by Haber process, basic, reacts with CO₂, Na, halogens, Ca(OCl)₂ Uses: fertilizers, explosives, cleaning, cooling Phosphorus allotropes: White (toxic), Red (matches), Black (conductor) VI A – Oxygen Family Valence: ns² np⁴, Oxidation: –2, +2, +4, +6 MP/BP: increases down the group, Bonding: covalent → metallic Ozone: prepared by Siemens & Halske, blue gas, strong oxidizer Uses: water purification, bleaching, sterilization Sulfur allotropes: Rhombic (stable), Monoclinic, Amorphous Heavy water D₂O: nuclear reactors, solvent, isotope studies VII A – Halogens Valence: ns² np⁵, Oxidation: –1 Physical states: F, Cl (g), Br (l), I (s) Chlorine: Nelson method (MnO₂ + HCl) Bleaching powder: Ca(OCl)₂ → bleaching, disinfection, chlorination D-Block (Transition Elements) Valence: (n–1)d¹⁻¹⁰ ns¹⁻² Variable oxidation states, colored compounds, catalytic, magnetic Werner’s theory: Primary valence = oxidation state, Secondary valence = coordination number EAN: electrons around metal → noble gas configuration → stability Oxidation-Reduction Electron transfer: Oxidation = lose e⁻, Reduction = gain e⁻ Oxidation number: formal charge assignment Rules: free elements = 0, H = +1, O = –2, sum = charge of species Ion-electron method: split half-reactions, balance atoms, H₂O/H⁺ or OH⁻, electrons, combine

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